E-ISSN:2319-3050

Research Article

Sports Psycology

International Journal of Research Pedagogy and Technology in Education and Movement Sciences

2025 Volume 14 Number 02 APR-JUN
Publisherwww.theuniversityacademics.com

APPRAISE THE DISTINCTIONS IN MENTAL SKILLS AMONG ATHLETES ENGAGED IN OPEN-ENDED VERSUS CLOSED-ENDED SKILLS: A CROSS-SECTIONAL PROBE

Sharma M1*†, Deol NS2†, Bal BS3†
DOI:https://doi.org/10.55968/ijems.v14i02.522

1*† Mahima Sharma, Research Scholar, Department of Physical Education, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar,, Punjab, India.

2† Nishan Singh Deol, Professor, Department of Physical Education, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India.

3† Baljinder Singh Bal, Department of Physical Education Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Pb India, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India.

Study Aim: Aim of this study was to find out the differences of Mental Skills among athletes engaged in Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Skills sports. Material and Methods: A total of one hundred one male participants (N=111), aged between 18 and 25, from universities located in the northern state of Indian, took part in the study. Furthermore, these participants were categorized into the following groups. Group-A: [Open-Ended Sports; N1=66]and Group-B: [Closed-Ended Sports; N2=45]. The Mental Skills Questionnaire developed by Hardy and Nelson (1996) is intended for gathering data on the mental skills engaged in Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Skills sports. Statistical Techniques: A comparison of the two means was carried out using an unpaired 't'-test. All calculations and statistical analyses were performed utilizing SPSS 27. The threshold for significance in hypothesis testing was established at 0.05. Results: Results revealed that the means are not significantly different at p < 0.05 with regards to variable mental skills (0.2846<1.984) (viz., Imagery Ability; 0.2999<1.984, Mental Preparation; 0.4638<1.984, Self Confidence; 0.2036<1.984, Anxiety and Worry Management; 0.0715<1.984, Concentration Ability; 0.8367<1.984 and Relaxation Ability; 0.6651<1.984.

Keywords: Open-Ended Sports, Closed-Ended Sports, Imagery Ability, Mental Preparation, Self Confidence, Anxiety and Worry Management, Concentration Ability, Relaxation Ability, Mental Skills

Corresponding Author How to Cite this Article To Browse
Mahima Sharma, Research Scholar, Department of Physical Education, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar,, Punjab, India.
Email: 		Sharma M, Deol NS, Bal BS. APPRAISE THE DISTINCTIONS IN MENTAL SKILLS AMONG ATHLETES ENGAGED IN OPEN-ENDED VERSUS CLOSED-ENDED SKILLS: A CROSS-SECTIONAL PROBE. ijems. 2025;14(02):79-86.
Available From
https://ijems.net/index.php/ijem/article/view/522/
Manuscript Received Review Round 1 Review Round 2 Review Round 3 Accepted
2025-04-28 2025-04-28 2025-05-15 2025-05-23 2025-05-25
Conflict of Interest Funding Ethical Approval Plagiarism X-checker Note
Authors state no conflict of interest. Non Funded. The conducted research is not related to either human or animals use. 4 All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

© 2025by Sharma M, Deol NS, Bal BSand Published by The University Academics. This is an Open Access article licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ unported [CC BY 4.0].

International Journal of Research Pedagogy and Technology in Education and Movement Sciences 2025;14(02)79
Download PDFBack To ArticleINTRODUCTIONRESEARCH DESIGNFigure-1: Study
flow.DISTRIBUTION OF
SUBJECTSDEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE
OF RESPONDENTSSELECTION OF
VARIABLESSELECTION OF
TOOLSDESCRIPTION OF
THE VARIABLESSAMPLING DESIGN
AND PROCEDURERESEARCH APPROACHSTATISTICAL TECHNIQUEDATA ANALYSISSWOT ANALYSISTable-4: SWOT
analysis.RESULTSTable-8: Unpaired
t-test statistics
of athletes
engaged in
Open-Ended Versus
Closed-Ended Skills
concerning Mental
Preparation.Table-9: Unpaired
t-test statistics
of athletes
engaged in
Open-Ended Versus
Closed-Ended Skills
concerning Self
Confidence.Table-10: Unpaired
t-test statistics
of athletes
engaged in
Open-Ended Versus
Closed-Ended Skills
concerning Anxiety
and Worry
Management.Table-11: Unpaired
t-test statistics
of athletes
engaged in
Open-Ended Versus
Closed-Ended Skills
concerning Concentration
Ability.Table-12: Unpaired
t-test statistics
of athletes
engaged in
Open-Ended Versus
Closed-Ended Skills
concerning Relaxation
Ability.Table-13: Unpaired
t-test statistics
of athletes
engaged in
Open-Ended Versus
Closed-Ended Skills
concerning Mental
Skills.References
APPRAISE DISTINCTIONS MENTAL SKILLS AMONG ATHLETES ENGAGED OPEN ENDED VERSUS CLOSED ENDED SKILLS CROSS SECTIONAL PROBE

INTRODUCTION      

The main of objective of mental skill is to prepare easy guide to use as informative, to help athletes and coaches to improve the psychological aspects of performance (Kumar & Choudhary 2020). In order to achieve peak performance athletes, need a package including physical, psychological, technical and tactical skills (Katsikas & Smirniotou 2009). Sports psychologists have proposed three relevant categories of mental skills. The first covers basic skills including goal setting, confidence and commitment. The second category involves psychosomatic skills such as response to stress, fear, relaxation and refreshment, skills that are associated with an athlete's physiological characteristics. The third category encompasses cognitive skills including visualization, mental rehearsal, focusing, refocusing and competition planning; all these involve interaction with cognitive processes, such as learning, perception, memory and thinking (Durand-Bush et al., 2001 & Gholamhossinzadeheghlidi, et al., 2016). Among the mental skills common to high performing athletes are goal setting, imagery, self-confidence and the ability to focus on performance (Orlick & Partington 1988). Psychological skills or states (self-confidence, concentration, an optimal level of arousal, etc.) Cognitive and behavioral techniques which athletes use for the purpose of achieving desirable psychological states (goal setting, self-talk, imagination, etc. (Gould & Maynard 2009). However, when discussing the psychological characteristics of successful athletes, the term mental toughness is most often used. This term has been used for more than 20 years, along with terms such as mental strength, mental preparation, mental skills, and psychological skills (Gucciardi, et al., 2015). This psychological acuity contributes to an athlete being more successful than other athletes in determination, focus, self- confidence, and stress coping (Jones, et al., 2002). To determine what mental skills, make successful athletes (Jones, et al., 2007). In the early days, coaches and athletes recognized the importance of mental states for optimal performance, but the field of sports psychological training was not flourished because of the misunderstanding that psychological skills are innate properties and lack of knowledge to train these abilities (Vealey, 1988). The ability of elite athletes to harmonize the various factors to their advantage is a major concern to the field of

sport psychology (Adeyeye, et al., 2013). Sports that involve teams of individuals will require different mental skills for each individual due to the different demands of their specific roles within the team. (Sharma, 2018). There

are many chances for development on a personal level and for pushing the boundaries of human potential on a physical and psychological level (Sisodiya & Arora 2023).

RESEARCH DESIGN      

This research was an exploratory investigation that employed a quantitative approach for both data collection and analysis. The purpose of the study was to find out the differences of Mental Skills among athletes engaged in Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Skills sports.

2502.png

Figure-1: Study flow.

A total of one hundred one male participants (N=111), aged between 18 and 25, from universities located in the northern state of Indian, took part in the study. Furthermore, these participants were categorized into the following groups.

@Group-A: [Open-Ended Sports; N1=66]

@Group-B: [Closed-Ended Sports; N2=45]

DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS     

Table-1: Distribution of subjects.

Sr. No.SportsSample
[Open-Ended Sports; N1=66]
1.Football24
2.Hockey22
3.Volleyball20
[Closed-Ended Sports; N2=45]
1.Gymnastics16
2.Swimming15
3.Archery14

International Journal of Research Pedagogy and Technology in Education and Movement Sciences 2025;14(02)80
APPRAISE DISTINCTIONS MENTAL SKILLS AMONG ATHLETES ENGAGED OPEN ENDED VERSUS CLOSED ENDED SKILLS CROSS SECTIONAL PROBE

DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS   

A demographic profile of respondents in research constitutes a comprehensive overview of the attributes of individuals who took part in a study. This profile typically encompasses information such as the sample size, age,

gender, group affiliation, marital status, nationality, level of participation, and associated institutions. Such details enable researchers to grasp the composition of their sample and discern possible trends or patterns within the data influenced by these factors. The following is the demographic profile of respondents: Table-2: Demographic Profile of Respondents.

GenderMale
Sample(N=111)
Age18-25 Years
GroupOpen-Ended SportsClosed-Ended Sports
NumberN1=66N2=45
i.  Football
ii.  Hockey
iii.  Volleyball		i.  Gymnastics
ii.  Swimming
iii.  Archery
Marital StatusUnmarried
NationalityIndian
Level  of
participation		Inter-College
UniversitiesoGuru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar
oPunjabi University, Patiala
oPanjab University, Chandigarh
PROCEDURE OF SELECTING THE SAMPLE

G*Power version 3.1.9.7 was used to analyze the power and to compute size with graphics options. G*Power was also utilized to calculate effect sizes and to visually represent the outcomes of power analyses.

2502 2.png

SELECTION OF VARIABLES     

A feasibility assessment was performed to identify the factors deemed suitable for investigation, considering the tool accessibility, subject adequacy, testing time availability and overarching research goals. The experts were consulted in determining the adoption of unitary and integrated factors. In light of the aforementioned factors, the subsequent criteria were applied in the selection of variables for the present study.

  1. Imagery Ability
  2. Mental Preparation
  • Self Confidence
  1. Anxiety and Worry Management
  2. Concentration Ability
  3. Relaxation Ability
  • Mental Skills (Total)

SELECTION OF TOOLS     

When selecting research tools, the most important factors to consider are the specific research objectives, context, available resources, and the need to maximize data quality and efficiency; choosing the right tool depends on whether your research is qualitative or quantitative, and the type of data you need to collect, such as through surveys, interviews, observations, or analysis software. The tools listed below were chosen for this study.

Table-3: Selection of tools.

ToolsAuthorYear
Mental  Skills
Questionnaire		Hardy and Nelson1996

DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIABLES    

The Mental Skills Questionnaire developed by Hardy and Nelson (1996) is intended for gathering data on the mental skills engaged in Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Skills sports. In accordance with the study's goals, following mental skills will be chosen for inclusion in the research.

  1. Imagery Ability
  2. Mental Preparation
  • Self Confidence
  1. Anxiety and Worry Management
  2. Concentration Ability

International Journal of Research Pedagogy and Technology in Education and Movement Sciences 2025;14(02)81
APPRAISE DISTINCTIONS MENTAL SKILLS AMONG ATHLETES ENGAGED OPEN ENDED VERSUS CLOSED ENDED SKILLS CROSS SECTIONAL PROBE
  1. Relaxation Ability
  • Mental Skills (Total)

SAMPLING DESIGN AND PROCEDURE    

A sample is defined as a subset of individuals chosen from a larger population of interest, and in many cases, sampling is more feasible than conducting research on the entire population. Although it is not possible to guarantee that any sample will be entirely representative, it can still yield results that mirror the characteristics of the broader population without the need to survey every individual. In this research, a purposive sampling technique was employed to select participants. This method is characterized by its lower precision, as it involves selecting the most readily available subjects. Additionally, it represents the most economical choice for researchers regarding time, effort, and financial resources.

RESEARCH APPROACH     

This research employs a quantitative research methodology, which allows for the concurrent analysis of quantitative data. The quantitative approach was primarily employed during the course of the study. Furthermore, qualitative data collection was integrated through comment sections in a largely close- ended questionnaire, allowing participants to offer additional insights that enhance the quantitative findings.

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE     

  • G*Power version 3.1.9.7. The analysis of power and the computation of sample size with graphical options were conducted using G*Power version 1.9.7. Within the realm of data analysis, an examination of the data was undertaken through the utilization of descriptive statistics and graphical analysis.
  • Descriptive Statistics: Fundamental characteristics of the data were compiled, encompassing measures of central tendency (mean) and variability (standard deviation), as well as the maximum and minimum values This analysis offered a comprehensive overview of the trends and variations present within the dataset.
  • Unpaired 't'-test. A comparison of the two means was carried out using an unpaired 't'-test.
  • SPSS 27: All calculations and statistical analyses were performed utilizing SPSS 27. The threshold for significance in hypothesis testing was established at 0.05.

DATA ANALYSIS      

After the data collection was completed, the researcher performed a quantitative analysis utilizing the responses gathered from the participants. A systematic approach was adopted to analyze the research data, which is detailed in the following steps.

  • Data: The responses submitted by the participants were analyzed and assessed in alignment with the information collected from the
  • Testing instruments: The research scholar assessed the instrument for both validity and reliability before utilizing it for measurement
  • Measuring Variables: There were three variables used in this study, namely, Mental Skills.
  • Test the hypothesis: It was hypothesized that there would be significant differences of Mental Skills among Racket games and Combat sports players among Athletes Engaged In Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended
  • Level of significance: The significance level in research indicates the probability that a result is due to influences other than random This is often denoted as the alpha (α) value. In the current study, a significance level of 0.05 was chosen.

SWOT ANALYSIS      

A SWOT analysis included in a research thesis functions as a strategic planning tool aimed at identifying and evaluating the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats related to the research topic. This instrument assists the researcher in understanding the internal and external factors that could impact the study's success and the possible implications of their results, thus

enabling a more comprehensive and informed exploration of the research area. The researcher presented a succinct SWOT analysis.

Table-4: SWOT analysis.


International Journal of Research Pedagogy and Technology in Education and Movement Sciences 2025;14(02)82
APPRAISE DISTINCTIONS MENTAL SKILLS AMONG ATHLETES ENGAGED OPEN ENDED VERSUS CLOSED ENDED SKILLS CROSS SECTIONAL PROBE
Sr.No.SWOTInferences
1.StrengthsThe findings of this study may improve the comprehension of the selected factors among a diverse range of stakeholders, such as sports psychologists, athletes, coaches, trainers, educators, and physical education instructors, in relation to the following aspects:
Mental Skill:
o  Imagery Ability
o  Mental Preparation
o  Self Confidence
o  Anxiety and Worry Management
o  Concentration Ability
o  Relaxation Ability
2.WeaknessesThe  current  investigation  is  limited  as questionnaires do not allow the researcher to delve
deeper into and elucidate topics.
3.OpportunitiesInvestigating  psychological  components  will uncover a novel and intriguing domain that
necessitates comprehensive scientific research.
4.ThreatsThe researcher fails to consider additional factors, including individual preferences, attitudes, levels of cooperation,  household  composition,
socioeconomic status, cultural influences, religious beliefs, educational background, and dietary habits.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Ethical considerations in a research thesis involve various essential components, including confidentiality, anonymity, and voluntary participation. These elements work together to guarantee that research is conducted with appropriate respect for the rights and well-being of participants, while also maintaining the integrity of the research process. This study has duly acknowledged ethical considerations. During the collection and presentation of research materials, the researcher follows these guiding principles.

&Integrity

&Dignity

&Autonomy

&Confidentiality

&Responsibility

&Competence

&Justice and Privacy

RESULTS       

Table-5: Descriptive Statistics of Open-Ended Skill Sports.

Descriptive Statistics of Open-Ended Skill Sports
Imag ery Abili tyMenta l Prepar ationSelf Confi denceAnxiet y and Worry Manag ementConcent ration AbilityRelax ation Abilit yMent al Skill s
Minim ummin
=		44444455
Maxim ummax
=		233124222223108
RangeR =19272018181953
Sizen =66666666666666
Sumsum
=		8899689108918757855318
Meanx¯13.4
69		14.6613.78
7		13.513.25711.8.9
3		80.5
75
Media nx˜1414.513.513141281.5
Standa rd Deviat ions =5.66
0		6.3935.9785.4805.7144.86712.3
72
Varian ces2 =32.0
37		40.87
1		35.73
8		30.03832.65523.69
6		153.
078
Mid- RangeMR
=		13.517.514131313.581.5
Interqu artile RangeIQR
=		10101189618
Sum of Square sSS
=		2082
.439		2656.
666		2323.
03		1952.52122.62
1		1540.
257		9950
.121
Mean Absolu te Deviat
ion		MA D =4.78
8		5.3635.2124.5454.8093.81210.1
16
Root Mean SquareRM S =14.5
94		15.98
0		15.01
0		14.5514.41912.83
7		81.5
05
Std Error of MeanSEx
¯¯¯		0.69
6		0.7860.7350.6740.7030.5991.52
29
Skewn essγ1 =- 0.1160.067-0.2080.006-0.1660.271- 0.036
Kurtos isβ2 =2.02
7		2.5901.9002.0902.0192.6862.61
3
Coeffi cient of Variati onCV
=		0.42
0		0.4350.433
5		0.4050.4310.4090.15
3
Relativ e Standa rd Deviat
ion		RS D =42.0
21%		43.58
9%		43.35
8%		40.598
%		43.103
%		40.92
7		15.3
55

Table-6: Descriptive Statistics of Closed-Ended Skill Sports


International Journal of Research Pedagogy and Technology in Education and Movement Sciences 2025;14(02)83
APPRAISE DISTINCTIONS MENTAL SKILLS AMONG ATHLETES ENGAGED OPEN ENDED VERSUS CLOSED ENDED SKILLS CROSS SECTIONAL PROBE
Descriptive Statistics of Closed-Ended Skill Sports
Imag ery Abili tyMenta l Prepar ationSelf Confi denceAnxiet y and Worry Manag ementConcent ration AbilityRelax ation Abilit yMen tal Skill s
Minim ummin
=		44444455
Maxim ummax
=		233122222223108
RangeR =19271818181953
Sizen =45454545454545
Sumsum
=		621634610611556564359
6
Meanx¯13.814.0813.5513.5712.35512.53
3		79.9
11
Media nx˜14131313121281
Standa rd Deviati
on		s =5.87
9		6.6635.9255.9565.4945.23311.9
14
Varian ces2 =34.5
72		44.40135.11635.4730.18827.39
0		141.
946
Mid- RangeMR
=		13.517.513131313.581.5
Interqu artile RangeIQR
=		10.5121111.59816.5
Sum of Square sSS=1521.21953.6441545.1111560.9771328.3111205.26245.64
Mean Absolu te Deviati onMA D =5.09
3		5.4805.1015.0354.5414.2139.60
9
Root Mean SquareRM S =14.9
74		15.55314.76714.80013.49713.55
9		80.7
74
Std Error of
Mean		SEx
¯¯¯		0.87
6		0.9930.8830.8870.8190.7801.77
6
Skewn essγ1 =- 0.13
8		0.387-0.210-0.0580.0360.1730.06
6
Kurtos isβ2 =1.97
3		2.8991.9691.9572.2572.4622.96
1
Coeffi cient of Variati onCV
=		0.42
6		0.4720.4370.4380.4440.4170.14
9
Relativ e Standa rd
Deviati on		RS D =42.6
07%		47.295
%		43.715
%		43.867
%		44.469
%		41.75
7%		14.9
09

Table-7: Unpaired t-test statistics of athletes engaged in Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Skills concerning Imagery Ability.

Imagery Ability
Open-Ended Skill SportsClosed-Ended Skill Sports
Mean13.469713.8
Variance31.552133.8044
Stand. Dev.5.61715.8142
N6645
T0.2999
d. o. f109
critical value1.984
since | t | < criticall value™no sig. diff.

o The absolute value of the calculated t is smaller than critical value (0.2999<1.984), so the means are not significantly different. at p < 0.05.

Table-8: Unpaired t-test statistics of athletes engaged in Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Skills concerning Mental Preparation.

Mental Preparation
Open-Ended Skill SportsClosed-Ended Skill Sports
Mean14.666714.0889
Variance40.252543.4143
Stand. Dev.6.34456.589
N6645
T0.4638
d. o. f109
critical value1.984
since t < criticall value™no sig. diff.

o The calculated t value is smaller than critical value (0.4638<1.984), so the means are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

Table-9: Unpaired t-test statistics of athletes engaged in Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Skills concerning Self Confidence.

Self Confidence
Open-Ended Skill SportsClosed-Ended Skill Sports
Mean13.787913.5556
Variance35.197434.3358
Stand. Dev.5.93275.8597
N6645
T0.2036
d. o. f109

International Journal of Research Pedagogy and Technology in Education and Movement Sciences 2025;14(02)84
APPRAISE DISTINCTIONS MENTAL SKILLS AMONG ATHLETES ENGAGED OPEN ENDED VERSUS CLOSED ENDED SKILLS CROSS SECTIONAL PROBE
critical value1.984
since t < criticall value™no sig. diff.

o The calculated t value is smaller than critical value (0.2036<1.984), so the means are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

Table-10: Unpaired t-test statistics of athletes engaged in Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Skills concerning Anxiety and Worry Management.

Anxiety and Worry Management
Open-Ended Skill SportsClosed-Ended Skill Sports
Mean13.513.5778
Variance29.583334.6884
Stand. Dev.5.43915.8897
N6645
T0.0715
d. o. f109
critical value1.984
since | t | < criticall value™no sig. diff.

o The absolute value of the calculated t is smaller than critical value (0.0715<1.984), so the means are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

Table-11: Unpaired t-test statistics of athletes engaged in Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Skills concerning Concentration Ability.

Concentration Ability
Open-Ended Skill SportsClosed-Ended Skill Sports
Mean13.257612.3556
Variance32.160929.518
Stand. Dev.5.67115.433
n6645
t0.8367
d. o. f109
critical value1.984
since t < criticall value™no sig. diff.

o The calculated t value is smaller than critical value (0.8367<1.984), so the means are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

Table-12: Unpaired t-test statistics of athletes engaged in Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Skills concerning Relaxation Ability.

Relaxation Ability
Open-Ended Skill SportsClosed-Ended Skill Sports
Mean11.893912.5333
Variance23.337226.7822
Stand. Dev.4.83095.1752
N6645
T0.6651
d. o. f109
critical value1.984
since | t | < criticall value™no sig. diff.

o The absolute value of the calculated t is smaller than critical value (0.6651<1.984), so the means are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

Table-13: Unpaired t-test statistics of athletes engaged in Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Skills concerning Mental Skills.

Mental Skills
Open-Ended Skill SportsClosed-Ended Skill Sports
Mean80.575879.9111
Variance150.7594138.7921
Stand. Dev.12.278411.781
N6645
T0.2846
d. o. f109
critical value1.984
since t < criticall value™no sig. diff.

o The calculated t value is smaller than critical value (0.2846<1.984), so the means are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

TESTING OF HYPOTHESES

It was hypothesized that there would be no significant differences in mental skills among athletes engaged in open-ended versus closed-ended skills. The findings indicated that there is no significant difference in the means at p <

0.05 concerning mental skills among athletes engaged in open-ended versus closed-ended skills.

CONCLUSIONS

Results revealed that the means are not significantly different at p < 0.05 with regards to variable mental skills (0.2846<1.984) (viz., Imagery Ability; 0.2999<1.984, Mental Preparation; 0.4638<1.984, Self Confidence; 0.2036<1.984, Anxiety and Worry Management;


International Journal of Research Pedagogy and Technology in Education and Movement Sciences 2025;14(02)85
APPRAISE DISTINCTIONS MENTAL SKILLS AMONG ATHLETES ENGAGED OPEN ENDED VERSUS CLOSED ENDED SKILLS CROSS SECTIONAL PROBE

0.0715<1.984, Concentration Ability; 0.8367<1.984 and Relaxation Ability; 0.6651<1.984.

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International Journal of Research Pedagogy and Technology in Education and Movement Sciences 2025;14(02)86